Cognitive Grammar - Definition and Discussion

Cognitive grammar is a  usage-based approach to grammar that emphasizes symbolic and semantic definitions of theoretical concepts that have traditionally been analyzed as purely syntactic.Cognitive grammar is associated with wider movements in contemporary language studies, especially cognitive linguistics  and functionalism. The term cognitive grammar was introduced by American linguist Ronald Langacker in his two-volume study Foundations of Cognitive Grammar (Stanford University Press, 1987/1991). Observations Portraying grammar as a purely formal system is not just wrong but wrong-headed. I will argue, instead, that grammar is meaningful. This is so in two respects. For one thing, the elements of grammar—like vocabulary items—have meanings in their own right. Additionally, grammar allows us to construct and symbolize the more elaborate meanings of complex expressions (like phrases, clauses, and sentences). It is thus an essential aspect of the conceptual apparatus through which we apprehend and engage the world.(Ronald W. Langacker, Cognitive Grammar: A Basic Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2008)Symbolic AssociationsCognitive grammar . . . chiefly departs from traditional theories of language in its contention that the way in which we produce and process language is determined not by the rules of syntax but by the symbols evoked by linguistic units. These linguistic units include morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, sentences and whole texts, all of which are deemed in herently symbolic in nature. The way in which we join linguistic units together is also symbolic rather than rule-driven because grammar is itself meaningful   (Langacker 2008a: 4). In claiming a direct symbolic association between linguistic form (what it terms phonological structure) and semantic structure, Cognitive Grammar denies the need for an organizational system to mediate between the phonological and semantic structures (i.e. syntax).(Clara Neary, Profiling the Flight of The Windhover. (Cognitive Grammar in Literature, ed. by  Chloe Harrison et al. John Benjamins, 2014)​Assumptions of Cognitive GrammarA Cognitive Grammar is based on the following assumptions... .:The grammar of a language is part of human cognition and interacts with other cognitive faculties, especially with perception, attention, and memory. . . .The grammar of a language reflects and presents generalizations about phenomena in the world as its speakers experience them. . . .Forms of grammar are, like lexical items, meaningful and never empty or meaningless, as often assumed in purely structural models of grammar.The grammar of a language represents the whole of a native speakers knowledge of both the lexical categories and the grammatical structures of her language.The grammar of a language is usage-based in that it provides speakers with a variety of structural options to present their view of a given scene.(G. Radden and R. Dirven, Cognitive English Grammar. John Benjamins, 2007)Langackers  Four PrinciplesA primary commitment to Cognitive Grammar is . . . to provide an optimal set of constructs for explicitly describing the linguistic structure. Its formulation has been guided throughout by a number of principles thought to be helpful in achieving such optimality. The first principle . . . is that functional considerations should inform the process from the outset and be reflected in the frameworks architecture and descriptive apparatus. Because the functions of la nguage involve the manipulation and symbolization of conceptual structures, a second principle is the need to characterize such structures at a reasonable level of explicit detail and technical precision. To be revealing, however, descriptions must be natural and appropriate. Thus, a third principle is that language and languages have to be described in their own terms, without the imposition of artificial boundaries or Procrustean modes of analysis based on conventional wisdom. As a corollary, formalization is not to be considered an end in itself, but must rather be assessed for its utility at a given stage of an investigation. That no attempt has yet been made to formalize Cognitive Grammar reflects the judgment that the cost of the requisite simplifications and distortions would greatly outweigh any putative benefits. Finally, a fourth principle is that claims about language should be broadly compatible with secure findings of related disciplines (e.g., cognitive psychology, neu roscience, and evolutionary biology). Nevertheless, the claims and descriptions of Cognitive Grammar are all supported by specifically linguistic considerations.(Ronald W. Langacker, Cognitive Grammar.  The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. by  Dirk Geeraerts and Herbert Cuyckens. Oxford University Press, 2007)

Ethical And Legal Boundaries Of Wells Fargo - 1355 Words

Wells Fargo is an American bank that was created in 1852 by Henry Wells and James Fargo. It is the second largest bank in the USA in terms of market cap, operates in over 42 countries around the world, and has over 260,000 employees. In 2016, federal regulators caught Wells Fargo, creating millions of fake bank and credit card accounts; over 1.5 million bank accounts were created. Furthermore, federal regulators also said that 565,443 credit cards were created, and 1400 of those accounts had been charged over 400,000 dollars in fees. Wells Fargo employees broke many ethical and legal boundaries and engaged in counterproductive work behavior. Counterproductive work behavior has a negative impact on the company, it’s employees and†¦show more content†¦This practice was so common that Wells Fargo employees had several methods for doing this. The first method is sand bagging. Sand Bagging involves failing to open accounts by customers at their requested date, instead accumulating accounts to open in the next sales period to inflate profits. Another practice was called Pinning which was creating pin numbers without customer’s authorization, and attaching them to credit cards. Then employees would impersonate customers on Wells Fargo’s computers and use these pin numbers to create online banking and bills for customers. Finally, a practice called bundling was done where Wells Fargo employees would mislead customers saying that certain banking products were only available in bundles which forced customers to add more products than they wanted. So, one wonders, how could this have happened? Why di d high expectations of sales lead to unethical, almost criminal behaviour? This is tied to Goal Setting theory. Goal setting theory, created by Edwin Locke, states that employees are motivated by clear goals, and appropriate feedback. Individuals that were given clear, specific and difficult goals had greater performance than individuals given general and easy goals. However, research has shown that setting unattainable and challenging goals can lead to risky or even unethical behaviour. A study done byShow MoreRelatedOur Paper Today Will Be On Wells Fargo. Wells Fargo Is1354 Words   |  6 PagesOur paper today will be on Wells Fargo. Wells Fargo is an American bank that was created in 1852 by Henry Wells and James Fargo. It is the second largest bank in the USA in terms of market cap, operates in over 42 countries around the world, and has over 260,000 employees. In 2016, federal regulators caught Wells Fargo creating millions of fake bank and credit card accounts; over 1.5 million bank accounts were created. 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Saving Private Ryan Free Essays

It was an inspiration that the private Ryan should be sent safely to his home. The part in which the General read the Letter to Mrs. Bixby, written by Abraham Lincoln to sympathize the mother of five sons believed to have been killed in the American Civil War it is the film back to Rodat’s Civil War inspiration. We will write a custom essay sample on Saving Private Ryan or any similar topic only for you Order Now Spielberg in this film has innovated a style of direction. The director has made enormous efforts to make the movie seem real to the viewers. For this purpose, a ‘first person’ camera has been used and the cameras have not been installed right through the large scene, to show the actions, because due to first person camera, the viewer can eye witness the whole environment presented by the director. And as a result, throughout the movie; the consequence on the viewer is a feeling of actually being â€Å"present† during the scenes the scenes as intense as the assault on the beachhead and during the other action sequences. The viewer mind does not feel like a spectator, but rather as an interactive part of a moment in time. To give the real impact; underwater cameras were also used. Through these cameras fighting scenes under the water were clearly available to the viewers to witness, they could even see bullets striking the soldiers under the water. A huge amount of fake blood was used to make the viewer feel the scene real. By these efforts of the director the viewer gets actually involved and feels the dreadful environment of the war. In the beginning of the movie Tom Hanks who played the role of Captain John Miller leaded the company on the D-Day in the fight for Omaha beach. And now he is being sent on a risky mission in which he has to rescue a soldier. When the World War II was on going, the news is given to Chief of Staff, General Marshall that during the war, three brothers of the same family have died. The three brothers have died in action. And three letters were sent to their mother having the news of the death of her three sons on the same day, and their mother, Mrs. Ryan, could not bear this as it was very painful to her. And then he learns that a fourth son is also a soldier and he might be alive, the General plans to send a unit to find him and bring him back, in spite of being told that it’s highly doubtful that he is still alive and the area that he was known to be at is very risky. As it was still a great chance that could alleviate the grief of Mrs. Ryan; the army did not miss the opportunity when they learnt that there is a fourth brother whose name was Private James Ryan. So it was decided to send the squad to locate him so that he can go back to his mother. So the unit consisting of 8 men is sent to find him but as affirmed it’s very unsafe and one by one, each of them dies. It was a risky mission and the lives of soldiers were in danger. Captain Miller has the task to find Private James Ryan. On the way to Ramelle, Miller makes a decision to take the chance to neutralize a small German machine gun position near to an abandoned radar station. In the resulting fight the squad’s medic, Wade (Ribisi) is gravely wounded. The last surviving German wraths the, squad members except Upham (Davies) because he used to be his friend. Miller decides to let the German walk away and capitulate himself to the next allied patrol. Reiben is no longer confident in the leadership of Miller and he declares his purpose to desert, brings about a tense disagreement with Horvath (Sizemore) that intimidates to split the squad apart until Miller finds a solution to the situation and reveals his origins, on which the squad had made a bet and after this Reiben decides to stay. The squad finally arrives to Ramelle where they demolish a German scouting unit with the help of some American paratroopers and one of them was Ryan. In Ramelle the unit gets regrouped. The American army defended the town and Ryan comes to know about the death of his brothers and the rescue mission. Ryan refuses to leave his makeshift unit, and demands that he want to help defend the bridge against a future German counter-attack. Miller unwillingly agrees and allowed Ryan to stay and orders his unit to help guard the bridge in the forthcoming battle. Miller takes command and sets up the defense with manpower and resources they have which were not very sufficient. Towed Flak 38 cannon and half-tracks were owned by the Germans. Thus they were well equipped. The defense operation was leaded by Captain Miller. Americans fought well and made the Germans face heavy casualties. But Germans have killed many Americans squad members. The American unit was devastated by Germans. The defenders had to leave the bridge because the German Tankers had made them suffer a lot . The bridge gets blown by the Americans but on the same time Captain Miller gets injured by the German. An American soldier destroyed the tank when it was about to reach the bridge. The American Army after this advanced even more and defeated the remaining German forces. But only few of American soldiers could survive which included: Ryan, Reiben and Upham. In the last moments of Miller; the last words which he uttered were this: â€Å"James†¦ earn this. Earn it. † (Spielberg 1998) Now the elderly man is being shown which was shown in the beginning of the movie as well. He is actually Ryan and he is at the grave of Miller. Ryan wanted to prove in front of Miller that he has spent his life as a good man. To get the confirmation he requests his wife to say that he has lived as a ‘good man’. And he has not let down Miller and the sacrifice he made for him. COMPARISON OF SAVING PRIVATE RYAN AND WAR BETWEEN GEORGIA AND RUSSIA: The war between Georgia and Russia can be compared to this movie in several ways; in fact all the wars can be compared to each other, as their consequences are always the same, each and every war results in bloodshed and loss of property and really precious lives. The attack of Georgia resembles Germany’s attack that began the World War II. The blood shed rate is high in this war also; it has also caused thousands of people and is the peril to world harmony. As both the nations are well equipped and do not hesitate in causing damages to the opponents. The 2008 war formally began on August 7, 2008 with a military attack by Georgia into one of two provinces, which had affirmed independence sixteen years ago in 1992. Russian quickly reacted with a large scale vengeance in the province and later invaded into Georgia proper. There are various comparisons between the ongoing war of Russia and Georgia with the movie Saving Private Ryan, some of which are discussed in details below: LOSS OF LIVES: So many people have lost there lives in both the depictions of war, i. . the Georgia and Russia war and the events of WWII that have been presented in the movie. Rivers of blood are flowing and everywhere in the environment cries can be heard, war is the second name of devastation. Blood and only blood can be seen all around. The reality of war is extremely brutal. WEAPONS USED: The means of attacking the opponents are almost the same in the movie and the Russia Georgia war. Massive firepower was used in both of them. Tanks attacked the militants as well as the civilians and also jets were used for the attacks. THE REASONS BEHIND THE ATTACK: The causes of both the wars were unknown initially; as both the attacks were made unilaterally, and then the suffering nations had to counter attack in their defense. In the Russia Georgia war, heavy bombardment started from Georgia’s side and in the movie the assault began from the side of Germany. CONCLUSION: This description of war and the portrayal of war which the movie â€Å"Saving Private Ryan† presents seem the same; by reading all these details we imagine blood and painful voices all around. Not only the militants but the civilians also equally suffer; just as the movie has presented the war; the actual war between Georgia and Russia is equally cruel. The war is always horrible, whether we see it in reality or through any other medium. The sketch this movie makes in the mind of the viewer is the actual representation of brutalities of war. Another comparison one can find between these two can be the loss of lives of the militants which so sincerely fight for the defense of the nation and yet meet very cruel deaths. War is nothing but an extreme threat to the people and our mother earth. How to cite Saving Private Ryan, Papers Saving Private Ryan Free Essays The ingenious film, directed by Steven Spielberg, ‘Saving Private Ryan’ is in my opinion the most realistic film to ever portray the D- Day landings. Many critics have even said it to be so vivid that the only element missing is the smell. In the Film’s first battle scene, lasting twenty- five minutes in total, it brings all reality into the living nightmare that took place so long ago. We will write a custom essay sample on Saving Private Ryan or any similar topic only for you Order Now Brought back into life by Spielberg, I will show how he creates excitement and tension in the most realistic of ways. I will discuss how he portrays the characters, his use of sound and last of all, his use of camera shots and how they contribute to the overall effect of the scene. Spielberg manifests an overall memorable opening scene and I will show just how. Released on the 24th July 1998, ‘Saving Private Ryan’ promised to break all blockbuster records and go straight to the top. Spielberg stunned the world with the film’s realism and authenticity, proving that his renowned reputation is not just hearsay, but fact. The plot is loosely inspired by the true story of the Niland brothers, where two of the four were killed and the third, presumed dead. The decision was made to retrieve the fourth, to prevent a national uproar and from a whole family from being wiped out due to War. The plot, proving exciting, brings much controversy over the mission to risk eight lives for the sake of one. The whole epic World War 11 drama cost approximately $65 million in total, most of which was spent on the graphic detail and effects in the first battle scene of the film. Although the twenty-five minute battle scene is complex cinematically and visually, the plot of the beach landings follows through reasonably simply. The scene starts off in focus of a small regiment of troops, quivering inside the hull of a boat, petrified by the sound of oncoming machine gun fire. The ramps fall down as a wheel spins round, pronouncing the ends to most of their lives. The boat opens out as many are shot dead instantly by the flurry of bullets thrust toward them. Few make it out a live before they have to plough through thousands of dead up the beach. As the battle scene cuts into view, the first character to be seen visually is Captain Miller. This immediately indicates that he is high up in rank and so, instantly gives him a commanding presence among the craft. The calmness of his voice even seems to sedate the tension in the atmosphere. However, the initial part of him to be seen is his pair of trembling hands. This conventionally is a sign of fear and to some, may show a weakness. Leaders are not usually associated with fear; stereotypically they are fearless. Spielberg has used this ironically, to show the realism within his character. All the soldiers fighting on that day were normal citizens fighting for pride and country. They all experienced fear. On D- day there were no fearless war heroes such as John Wayne and this is why Captain Miller, along with all the other troops, is shown in trepidation. As the shot moves outward, the whole of Captain Miller’s body is revealed. His appearance can be seen and again realism is reinforced. The person acting as Captain Miller, Tom Hanks does not have the stereotypical appearance of a War hero; he is small, placid and in lack of the muscle attributes usually associated with a clichid soldier. Through this casting Spielberg conveys a message. The men fighting on that day were normal. They weren’t all large men built of muscle, who could defy death and so, the person cast as Captain Miller isn’t either. Through this, the character of Captain Miller is made realer to the audience, thus making the film more accurate and historically correct. On the beach, after the regiment has landed, the Captain experiences a brief period where his emotions and conscience are thrown into turmoil. The horror of what is happening around him starts to sink in, as all terror results in a mental breakdown. The fact that he does not just march through the beach and that he is affected shows his compassion and empathy. It shows he is a caring human being; one who is gravely affected by the horrific things being done to his comrades. Through this period of collapse, Spielberg creates lots of tension, as the audience, who have gradually started to become attached to this realistic character, are willing him to snap out of it and gain his composure. They want him to get out of this situation and lead his troops up the beach. Another character that stands prominent in this scene is that of Sergeant Horvath. Spielberg has used Horvath’s character to contrast with Captain Miller, and this is seen even in the first few seconds of his dibut. Immediately as the audience set eyes upon his broad build, it can be seen that he is much more robust than the Captain and that he conforms more to the stereotypical image of a fictional war hero. I think that Spielberg has highlighted this point emphasise the normality and ordinary image of Captain Miller. He has done this to show that soldiers were all shapes and sizes. Through this contrast made, the realism of both characters is increased as they both can be recognised uniquely. Horvath and Miller again contrast in their methods of dealing with the trepidation and horror thrown at them. Whereas the Captain releases his petrified state through the constant trembling of his hands, Horvath allows his fear to disperse through chewing. Through Horvath’s different reaction, Spielberg defines his character more, making him more realistic as he deals with situations in a different way. As soldiers in real life all reacted uniquely depending on their personalities, Horvath does too. The audience then can identify better with him, likening him to people they know, thus recognising him as a real type of person, one who is unique. Although Captain Miller and Sergeant Horvath contrast in many ways, together they form a prevailing partnership. In every order relayed by the Captain, the Sergeant reinforces it, thus portraying his regard, proving that he has an immense admiration for the man. Horvath continuously stays close to the Captain, waiting for his command and looking out for him. Spielberg uses him as the Captains right arm. Everything about Horvath, from his bear like face, down to his cumbersome build, shout; protector! In view of this, the audience take a liking to him and confide comfort in the fact that Horvath will protect and bring their ‘everyman’ (the Captain) to safety. Spielberg uses the relationship between the two characters to excite the audience, as he shows that War is so out of the ordinary, that it brought together people in friendships who otherwise wouldn’t have done so. Captain Miller and Sergeant Horvath have such a strong relationship during this scene that excitement arouses among the audience, as they know that together the two will survive. Private Jackson, the regiment’s sniper is another character that has an essential role in the battle scene. His preliminary appearance is in the landing craft, immediately before the ramps descend. His face, being one of pure dread is an open book to the audience. He is so terrified that his expression and the first act that he commits, a kiss on a cross, show that he believes that there is no hope for survival left. It is as though he thinks that a kiss on the cross is the last action he is going to do and that if God is ever going to come to his aid, let it be now. I think that Spielberg has used this crucifix and his expression of misgiving, to draw compassion for the Private, but also to show how close death is to God. Immense suspense is created through the terror in Jackson’s eyes. Private Jackson is not focused upon much during the struggle to gain ground and progress up the beach, however is substantial in the climax of the Scene. In this section of the scene, there is a long pause where the camera focuses upon the concentration on Jackson’s face. He is speaking to God as he prepares to shoot and kill the Germans. During this moment of prayer, Jackson is in the action, yet alone and buried in responsibility. The long, seemingly calm pause is interspersed with other images of the dying, frantically praying to God in midst of all Chaos. Spielberg has used this range of images varied together, to prolong Jackson’s pause, generating tension as the audience anticipate the outcome. The different images are of various scenarios, where like Jackson they are praying to God in their time of need. Although the requirements of God are very different, this just shows that whatever situation that people are in, the natural instinct at the end of the day, is to call for a supernatural being, to come at their rescue. The element of spiritual confiding in this, show again just how close death is to God and this is clearly portrayed when Jackson say’s: â€Å"I am close to you Lord†. This is said moments before the Private shoots. He at this point is unsure of his survival and shows that he knows that he is incredibly close to dying. Spielberg lets the audience know this too and creates ample suspense through the pause. All tension that has been lingering is completely released when Private Jackson shoots and kills the remaining Germans. At this point the enemy onslaught has been destroyed and the American Soldiers are safe. Spielberg uses this point to release all of the excitement and tension that has been building up, transferring the audience into a relative calm. In the whole of the Battle scene, death is an element not escaped from. Spielberg has chosen to portray War how it really was, holding nothing back. In real life, death is not heroic; it is a tragedy that brings fear into the hearts of all men. It was not attractive, it was horrific and to keep it in line with realism. Spielberg too had to show it in this way. During the Scene, everywhere you turn, there is a person dying a painful death, with screams pronouncing the bodies awash with blood. Spielberg creates compassion among the audience, with empathy for the injured. However, he also arouses tension as the thought that maybe one of their favoured characters will be next, loiters in their minds. Spielberg has chosen to show death in such graphic detail, to keep nothing back from the audience. He wants to show it in a realistic way and I think wants to make it as authentic as possible. In other fictional War films, the Soldiers die heroically and for a patriotic reason. In reality, the Soldiers did not want to die and were scared out of their wits. Spielberg has portrayed it much truer to life and has steered away from these stereotypical films into reality, in order to keep the whole film’s authenticity as honest as possible. Unlike the Americans during the scene, the audience does not see the Germans’ faces. The camera shot restricts the view to distinguish only their backs, shoulders and arms from the rear. Spielberg has done this to dehumanise them, taking away the audiences empathy for their emotions. The eyes are said to be the ‘windows into your soul’ and by masking their faces the audience cannot see them and therefore can’t sympathise with their emotional state. The Germans were human and they too were going through the same trauma as the Americans. However, Spielberg wanted to get the audience biased toward the allies and so stopped the audience from having any compassion for the ‘enemy’. By doing this, Spielberg creates tension as the audience don’t want the Germans (whom they have no emotional attachment to) to kill the ‘much loved’ Americans. One machine gun post poses the greatest threat of all, mowing down life by life in every careless movement. The regiment of Soldiers, led by Captain Miller, work as a unified team to break past the barbed wire and screams of the dying. Taking cover, with the aid of their sniper, they kill they gunners and advance past the German bunker. All tension is then released; we know that for now that they are safe. Spielberg has used the characters in such a way, to reinforce the overall realism in the scene. By using one stereotypical character to represent the professional soldiers fighting on that day, he contrasts the rest of the characters to him, emphasising their statuses as average civilians. Through this contrast, realism is put into each of the characters as the realisation that these men were ordinary, comes into the minds of each spectator. Spielberg exploits the character’s thoughts and feelings, making the audience connect with them, thus producing tension at the uncertainty of their survival. Through these points made by Spielberg, as a teenage male, I can appreciate the fact that these soldiers were not much older than I and that they weren’t all war heroes, but young, petrified men. Sound is another resource greatly used by Spielberg. The ever-loud rapidity of war seems to up the pace of the scene constantly, heightening the adrenaline of the audience and bringing their physical emotional rate in parallel with the chaos on the screen. Spielberg produces immense excitement, as the audience cannot bear to look away. Every moment is unpredictable and so is the sound along with it and this is extremely exciting and tense for the spectator. The last and possibly the greatest used of all three techniques is that of camera work. Spielberg has used this element to create immense tension in the scene. He has done this most notably through a deception early on, by killing off characters that the audience have become attached to and so, simulating an emotion of loss. Through out the scene he has used a long lingering shots to contrast with the rapid staccato of battle, emphasising certain important pauses, thus also generating suspense. The shots of death throughout the scene are extremely moving and certainly cause every spectator to stop and think about the brave men who died on 6th June 1944. How to cite Saving Private Ryan, Papers

Article Critique on School Governance

Question: Discuss about the Article Critique on School Governance. Answer: Introduction: In developing countries, learning achievements are still weak despite the rapid expansion in school participation. As such, the students scores in the developing countries remain low on internationally comparable tests. Most educational policy makers focus on lowering the pupil-teacher ratios. While some concentrate on systemic reforms designed to improve provider incentives and governance, others focus providing more resources for educational centers (Duflo, Dupas, Kreger, 2015). As a result, Duflo, Dupas, and Kremers primary focus were to examine how the various approaches applied by educational policymakers compliment and relate to each other in Kenya. The article demonstrates that in the absence of parents empowerment, the additional resources brought about the contract teacher program are often captured by the existing civil service teachers. Mainly, public service teachers reduce their effort which undoes the positive impact of class size reduction for students. In addition, they strive to capture rents by hiring their relatives, whose students perform poorly compared to those of other contract teachers. However, empowering parents through short-term training session mitigates the adverse effects brought about by civil service teachers. The findings of the research suggest that in the presence of the weak institutions, the behavioral responses of the existing providers may undermine the increase in resources. Even so, programs delegating authority to hire teachers on short-term contracts have potential to enhance student performance and test scores in the near term. In addition, it possesses the capacity to enhance the quality of the teaching labor force over the long term. It is the little details that matter. Critique of the Article By and large, the Duflo, Dupas and Kremer (2015) seek to establish how the reforms set in the Kenyan educational sector complement each other. They strive to answer the question whether or not the changes pertaining to the hiring of teachers on short-term contracts and school-based Management (SBM) training programs complement each other in the context of a randomized evaluation of the Extra Teacher Program in Kenya. The program was instigated in the country from 2005 up to 2007. As a whole, the authors were effective in convincing the reader that the questions answered in the article are interesting and significant. The direction and goals of the study are important as they help the reader understand the role played by the Extra teacher programs in developing countries. It also helps determine the effectiveness of such programs and the prospects for success in other developing nations apart from Kenya. The article plays a significant role and adds to the existing body of knowledge on the impact of such programs in improving the quality of the teaching labor force and improving student performance in test scores. Besides, the information provided in this research study will shade light to the stakeholders in the educational sector to determine the prospects for improvement in similar projects. As such, government, the Teachers Service Commission (TSC) and donors will be able to understand the effectiveness of such programs to determine whether or not to instigate reforms in the educational sector. In addition, the findings of the study act as mirror and reference for future studies done in relation to the Extra Teacher Program. The background setting for the article is in the education sector of Kenya. Duflo, Dupas, and Kreger (2015) examine a program under which school committees at randomly selected institutions in Kenya are funded. The fund was designated for the hiring of additional teachers on an annual contract. The contacts were only renewable on the condition of performance, outside the typical ministry of education civil-service channels. At the beginning of their study, the programs were already widespread in developing nations, but there were no evaluations of these programs as at the time. On the whole, the authors manage to skillfully explain the institutional and policy context of the topic under study. As such, they expound on the various elements and structure of the education system in Kenya with regards to the Teachers Service Commission, School Based Management Programs and the Extra Teacher Program instigated in the developing country. They also narrate Kenyas historical pattern of school committees that supplement the civil service teachers hired by the TSC. What is more, the authors provide informative background information on the education governance in Kenya. Most importantly, they deliver crucial information relating to the Extra Teacher Program. Specifically, the authors offer an enlightening program description that highlights aspects of the ETP, its origin, purpose and implementation. As a result, the audience of the paper can understand the information that the authors are trying to relay. Besides, the program description is expressive in such a manner that an individual who is not of Kenyan origin can understand various elements and crucial aspects of the program and education system in Kenya, and be able to apply the findings within their local setting. Notably, Duflo, Dupas, and Kremer (2015) fail to employ and establish a theoretical framework for their study. As such, the paper lacks a theoretical model. Typically, the theoretical model is made up of the concepts alongside their definitions and refer to existing theory that was used a foundation of the study. Therefore, the conceptual framework is an essential element in any research paper as it demonstrates the authors understanding of theories and concepts that relate to the topic under study. It also shows the relationship between the study and broader areas of knowledge. In this regard, the authors would have reviewed relevant research studies for theories relating to the reform programs and develop analytic models after that. This way, the research would have made a more explicit statement of theoretical assumption which permits the reader to evaluate critically. Even so, the paper was successful in developing an empirical analysis relevant to the topic under study. Duflo, Dupas, and Kremer (2015) successfully integrate the three stages of empirical analysis. Particularly, they provide a descriptive analysis of the data, then an analytic followed by a theorized explanation. In Stage one, a summary is generated to explain the study sample and data. In the data segment, the paper clearly describes the student participation, teacher effort and pedagogy as observed during the survey. In addition, the data section presents the test scores of standardized tests predominantly covering math and literacy questions that were administered in all the schools used as samples. Likewise, it presents data that was collected on the contract teachers hired through the program, including their demographic characteristics, relationships to the school and past experiences. In the second stage, the authors interrogate and critically appraise the data collected. The study has a specified empirical model which is stated as Yij = bi BasicETP_TSC ij+ b2 Basic ETP_CT+ b3ETP_wSMB_TSCij+ b4ETPwSMB_CTij+| Xija5+ Eij2. It is worth noting that this model was effectively employed to determine the various elements of the result findings. As such, the data was subjected to vigorous testing under the model to investigate the relationship between variables. Through this model, the standard deviation, standard error, coefficients, and significance levels were constructed to determine the relationship between the various variables. In addition, a linear probability regression model was done on the data. The independent variables in the model were the basic ETP and the SBM. On the other hand, the dependent variables comprised of the test scores and scope of improvement. By and large, the measures used in the study analysis correspond to the concepts of interest. As such, the determination of the test scores corresponds to the interest of the research with regards to improved learning and greater quality participation of teachers. As a result, these variables are useful in answering the research questions stipulated in the earlier stages of the paper. Notably, the article does not exhibit any form of bias between the two programs as the author report and analyze the data as drawn from the observations. It is vital to highlight the fact that the authors also used a causation in estimation and interpretation of the data. Specifically, the authors sought greater explanation and connection with the broader understanding of the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. Furthermore, Duflo, Dupas, and Kremer used an OLS regression control for student age, region, gender and the date that the test was taken. Similarly, the LPM regression was used in the process. Their causal story suggests that there are often significant learning effects during the contract years of the ETP but these effects are eroded once the students are reassigned to their regular classes. In addition, it was noted that the test scores also go down. Presentation of the data was perfectly orchestrated, allowing the authors to effectively present their findings and offer viable interpretations of the results. Their discussion of the estimated parameters is clear and concise with respect to sign, statistical significance, and magnitude. The researchers presented the results of their study in tables. Commendably, the information in the table was well interpreted to enable the reader to understand what the results represented. Duflo, Dupas, and Kremer (2025) also offered a descriptive analysis of the data and conveyed the findings of the results in a simple manner. Besides, they employed cognitive robustness tests. As a result, their audience can easily deduct what the study found out after the research. By and large, Duflo, Dupas, and Kremers research is an informative piece that adds to the already existing body of knowledge on special programs in the education system. Within Kenya, the results of the study will act as an essential background for improvement in the ETP and SBM system. Furthermore, the findings of this study are applicable to all settings in the world and can be applied in other nations apart from Kenya. Generally, the authors managed to present a well-formed research paper that employs all aspects of good research. It should be noted that Duflo, Dupas, and Kremer did an excellent research throughout the stages presented in the paper. As a result, their paper is well researched, developed, analyzed and presented. Reference Duflo, E., Dupas, P., Kremer, M. (2015). School governance, teacher incentives, and pupilteacher ratios: Experimental evidence from Kenyan primary schools. Journal of Public Economics, 123, 92-110.